This information is from:
http://www.pesticide.org/naled.pdf
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●
I N S E C T I C I D
E F A C T S H E E T
Caroline Cox is
NCAP’s staff scientist.
BY CAROLINE COX
Naled
(see Figure 1) is an insecticide
in
the organophosphate pesticide
family
that is commonly used to
kill
adult (flying) mosquitoes. Naled
has
been registered for use in the
since
1959 and is sold under the brand
name
Dibrom. AMVAC Chemical Corporation
has
been the major manufacturer
of
naled since 1998.1
Use
About
one million pounds of
naled
are used every year in the
Approximately
70 percent of this is
used
for mosquito control; almost
all
of this is applied aerially. The remaining
30
percent is used in agriculture.
Major
agricultural uses are on
cotton
in
alfalfa
in
grapes
in California.2
Mode of Action
Like
all organophosphate insecticides,
NALED (DIBROM)
Naled is an insecticide in the
organophosphate pesticide family used primarily for mosquito control. Dibrom is
a
common brand name for naled products.
About one million pounds are used annually in the
Like all organophosphates, naled is
toxic to the nervous system. Symptoms of exposure include headaches, nausea,
and diarrhea. Naled is more toxic
when exposure occurs by breathing contaminated air than through other kinds of
exposure. In laboratory tests, naled
exposure caused increased aggressiveness and a deterioration of memory and
learning.
Naled’s breakdown product dichlorvos
(another organophosphate insecticide) interferes with prenatal brain
development. In laboratory animals,
exposure for just 3 days during pregnancy when the brain is growing quickly
reduced brain size 15 percent.
Dichlorvos also causes cancer,
according to the International Agency for Research on Carcinogens. In
laboratory
tests, it caused leukemia and
pancreatic cancer. Two independent studies have shown that children exposed to
household “no-pest” strips containing
dichlorvos have a higher incidence of brain cancer than unexposed children.
Aerial applications of naled can
drift up to one-half mile.
According to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, naled is moderately to highly toxic to birds and fish. It
also
reduced egg production and hatching
success in tests with birds and reduced growth in tests with juvenile fish.
convulsions,
paralysis, and death.3
Breakdown Products
Naled
breaks down into dichlorvos,
another
organophosphate insecticide,
in
animals and soil.4,5 (See Figure 2.)
Inert Ingredients
Like
most pesticides, commercial
naled-containing
insecticides contain
ingredients
other than naled. Many of
these
ingredients, according to U.S.
pesticide
law, are called “inert.” Except
for
tests of acute effects, toxicology
tests
required for the registration
of
a pesticide are not conducted with
the
combination of ingredients found
in
commercial products.6
Most
inert ingredients are not identified
on
product labels, and little information
about
them is publicly available.
For
information about the inert ingredients
in
Dibrom products, see
“Inerts
in Dibrom Products,” p. 17.
Symptoms of Exposure
Symptoms
of exposure to naled and
all
organophosphate insecticides
include
headaches, muscle twitching,
nausea,
diarrhea, difficult breathing,
naled
kills insects by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase
(AChE),
an enzyme involved
in
the transmission of nerve impulses
from
one nerve cell to another.
This
causes a “jam” in the transmission
system,
resulting in restlessness,
Figure
1
Naled
1,2-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethyl
dimethyl
phosphate
Br
H3CO
O
O
P
Br
Cl
Cl
OCH3
Figure
2
Dichlorvos
H3CO
O
O
P
Cl
Cl
OCH3
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Dibrom
Concentrate (EPA Registration
No.
5481-480) contains the
inert
ingredient aromatic hydrocarbon
solvent
(Chemical Abstract Services
number
64742-94-5), also
called
solvent naphtha.1 This solvent
contains
two aromatic hydrocarbons,
naphthalene
and 1,2,4-
trimethylbenzene.2
Dibrom
8 Emulsive (EPA Registration
No.
5481-479) contains
naphthalene.3
Dibrom
8 Miscible (EPA Registration
No.
34704-351) contains solvents4
whose
ingredients can include
naphthalene
and trimethylbenzene.
5
Naphthalene
has been classified
by
EPA as a possible human carcinogen
because
it caused lung tumors
in
mice following inhalation.
Naphthalene
exposure also causes
headaches,
restlessness, lethargy,
nausea,
diarrhea, and anemia.
Anemia
in newborns can be caused
by
exposure during pregnancy.6
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene
is
irritating
to eyes and skin. It can
depress
the central nervous system
and
cause headache, fatigue, nausea,
and
anxiety. It has also caused
asthmatic
bronchitis.7
1.
U.S. EPA. Office of Prevention, Pesticides
and
Toxic Substances. Office of Pesticide
Programs.
2002. Letter from L.V. Moos, Information
Resources
and Services Division
acting
director, to NCAP, July 25.
2.
Shell Chemical Company. 2002. Material
safety
data sheet: Shellsol® A150.
www.euapps.shell.com/MSDS/GotoMsds.
3.
Amvac Chemical Corp. 2002. Material safety
data
sheet: Dibrom® 8 Emulsive.
www.cdms.net.
4.
Platte Chemical Co. 2001. Material safety
data
sheet: Dibrom 8 Miscible.
www.cdms.net.
5.
Shell Chemical Company. 2002. Material
safety
data sheet: Shellsol A100.
www.euapps.shell.com/MSDS.
6.
Hazardous Substance Data Bank. 2002.
Naphthalene.
http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.
7.
Hazardous Substance Data Bank. 2002.
1,2,4-trimethylbenzene.
http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov.
“INERTS” IN DIBROM PRODUCTS
depression,
seizures, and loss of consciousness.
7
Toxicity to the Nervous
System
A
symptom of exposure to naled
that
occurs at low doses (whether by
breathing,
through the skin, or orally)
is
inhibition of acetylcholinesterase
(AChE).
In studies conducted by naled
manufacturers,
exposure of rats to
naled
in air at a dose of 0.3 milligrams
per
kilogram of body weight
(mg/kg)
per day for three weeks, skin
exposures
of 20 mg/kg per day for 4
weeks,
and oral exposure of 10 mg/
kg
per day for 4 weeks caused inhibition
of
AChE.
Long-term
exposure also caused
AChE
inhibition; reduced AChE activity
occurred
in dogs exposed orally to
2
mg/kg per day for 1 year and in rats
exposed
orally to the same dose for 2
years.8
In
addition, the long-term study with
dogs
found that doses of 2 mg/kg per
day
also caused mineralization of the
spinal
cord.8
Naled’s
breakdown product dichlorvos
inhibits
the activity in rats of a
nervous
system enzyme called neuropathy
target
esterase. In experiments
conducted
by biochemists at the Postgraduate
Institute
of Medical Education
and
Research (India), doses of 6
mg/kg
per day reduced the enzyme’s
activity
by about 40 percent. Inhibition
of
this enzyme causes partial paralysis
of
the hind legs followed by
incoordination.9
Toxicity Caused by Breathing
Naled
Naled
is more potent when exposure
occurs
through breathing than
when
exposure occurs through eating
contaminated
food or drinking contaminated
water.
Toxicologists at the
University
of California found that inhalation
was
20 times more toxic to
rats
than oral dosing (dosing through
the
mouth) of naled.10 (See Figure 3.)
The
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
(EPA) came to a similar conclusion
based
on tests submitted to
the
agency by naled’s manufacturer:
the
dose required to cause cholinesterase
inhibition
through inhalation
exposure
was less than 1/6 of the lowest
oral
dose causing the same effect.11
An
additional study by the University
of
California researchers mentioned
above
found that small droplets
of
naled (the size produced by
ultra
low volume sprayers often used
in
mosquito spraying) were about
four
times more acutely toxic than
larger
droplets.12
Effects on Behavior
Exposure
to naled has multiple
effects
on behavior. In a study conducted
by
naled’s manufacturer, naled
caused
reduced muscle strength, slow
responses
to stimulation, and reduced
activity
in rats. These behavioral
changes
occurred at all but the lowest
dose
level tested in males and all dose
levels
tested in females,13 suggesting
that
females are more sensitive than
males
to naled poisoning.
Exposure
to naled’s breakdown
product
dichlorvos causes increased
aggression
and impaired memory. The
Indian
biochemists mentioned above
found
that fighting was about 5 times
Figure
3
Acute Toxicity of Naled
Source:
Berteau, P.A. and W.A. Dean. 1978.
A
comparison of oral and inhalation toxicities
of
four insecticides to mice and rats. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 19:
113-120.
Breathing
Oral
200
150
100
50
0
Median
lethal dose to rats in milligrams per kilogramwith
95%
confidence intervals(Smaller lethal dose = higher toxicity)
Naled
is more acutely toxic from exposure via
breathing
than from oral exposure.
Type
of exposure
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entists
found that injections of
dichlorvos
at weekly intervals in
mice
caused a 3-fold increase in the
number
of mutations in liver cells.26 A
team
of geneticists from the National
Research
Centre (Egypt) found that
oral
doses of dichlorvos given to mice,
or
feeding mice diclorvos-treated
beans,
increased the incidence of chromosome
abnormalities
in both spleen
and
sperm cells.27
Ability to Cause Cancer
(Carcinogenicity)
EPA
classifies naled as a “Group E”
chemical.
Group E chemicals have
demonstrated
“evidence of noncarcinogenicity”
in
laboratory tests.28
Naled’s
breakdown product dichlorvos,
however,
is classified as “possibly
carcinogenic
to humans,” with “sufficient
evidence
in experimental animals”
for
its carcinogenicity by the
International
Agency for Research on
Carcinogens.
The agency gave
dichlorvos
this classification because
it
caused forestomach tumors, leukemia,
and
pancreatic tumors in laboratory
tests
with rats and mice.29
In
children, exposure to dichlorvos
has
been linked with increased cancer
risks.
Researchers at the University
of
North Carolina found an association
between
exposure to dichlorvos
“no-pest”
strips during pregnancy
or
during childhood and the incidence
of
three types of childhood cancer:
leukemias,
brain tumors, and lymphoma.
30
Missouri Department of
Health
researchers found similar results
for
childhood brain cancer.31
Effects on the Immune System
Both
naled and its breakdown product
dichlorvos
inhibited an enzyme in
white
blood cells called monocyte esterase,
according
to a study conducted
by
researchers at the Technicon Science
Center.32
(See Figure 5, p. 19.)
Monocyte
esterases are an “integral
component”33
of the process by which
white
blood cells eliminate virus-infected
cells
from our bodies and monitor
for
precancerous cells.33
Synergy
A
study submitted to EPA by Shell
Chemical
Co. showed that “the toxic
Figure
4
Exposure to Naled’s Breakdown Product
Increases
Aggressiveness and Disrupts Learning
Source:
Sarin, S. and K.D. Gill. 1998. Biochemical and behavioral deficits in adult rat
following
chronic
dichlorvos exposure. Pharmacol.
Biochem. Behavior 59: 1081-1086.
In
laboratory animals, exposure to naled’s breakdown product dichlorvos causes
more frequent
fighting
and hinders learning.
20
15
10
5
0
Number
of fighting episodes(per minute, with standard deviations)
more
common among exposed rats
than
among unexposed ones.9 Exposed
animals
also required more trials than
unexposed
ones to learn an avoidance
behavior,
indicating a “severe
deterioration
in their memory and
learning
functions.”14 (See Figure 4.)
Eye and Skin Irritation
Naled
is a “severe” eye irritant and
is
“corrosive” to skin.15 All three
frequently
used
commercial Dibrom products
pose
similar hazards. Labels of
two
of the products warn “causes irreversible
eye
and skin damage”16,17 and
the
third states that it is “corrosive”
and
“causes eye damage and skin damage.”
18
Skin irritation was documented
by
physicians soon after naled’s use
in
the U.S. began.19
Effects on the Circulatory
System
In
a long-term feeding study conducted
by
naled’s manufacturer, naled
caused
anemia in dogs at all but the
lowest
dose level tested. Exposures of
2
mg/kg per day reduced the number
of
red blood cells and the amount of
hemoglobin
(the oxygen-carrying pigment)
in
the blood.20
Effects on Reproduction
Dichlorvos,
naled’s breakdown
product,
interferes with prenatal brain
development.
Biologists at the
University
of Oslo found that dosing
guinea
pigs with 15 mg/kg of
dichlorvos
twice daily for three days
during
pregnancy caused a significant
(15
percent) decrease in the offspring’s
brain
size. The guinea pigs
were
dosed with dichlorvos between
the
40th and 50th day of their pregnancy,
a
time when the fetal brain is
undergoing
a growth spurt.21
In
addition, University of Michigan
researchers
showed that naled exposure
causes
delays in the development
of
rat embryos. For example, exposure
of
pregnant rats on the ninth day
of
their pregnancy caused a significant
delay
in the closing of the
embryo’s
neural tube.22
Naled
and dichlorvos can be passed
from
mothers to their offspring through
nursing.
German researchers found
both
insecticides in milk from cows
that
had been treated with naled.23
Ability to Cause Genetic
Damage (Mutagenicity)
Naled
damaged bacteria’s genetic
material
in laboratory tests conducted
by
geneticists at Monash University
(Australia)24
as well as biologists at
Texas
Tech University.25
Naled’s
breakdown product
dichlorvos
also causes genetic damage.
A
team of Greek and Dutch sci-
Unexposed
Exposed
Fighting Learning an
Avoidance
Behavior
Unexposed
Exposed
8
6
4
2
0
Number
of trials required tolearn an avoidance behavior(with standard deviations)
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effects
of naled were potentiated by
co-administration
of Ciodrin, malathion,
and
methyl parathion.”34 All three are
insecticides
in the organophosphate
family.
Special Susceptibility
Malnourished
individuals may be
particularly
susceptible to naled poisoning.
Researchers
from the Institute
of
Hygiene and Occupational Health
(Bulgaria)
studied naled’s effects on
rats
that were fed a low-protein diet
and
found that naled was almost twice
as
toxic to them as it was to rats fed a
normal
diet. (See Figure 6.) In addition,
the
rats fed a low-protein diet
developed
liver damage from their
naled
exposure.35
Contamination of Food
The
U.S. Department of Agriculture
documented
contamination of strawberries,
peppers,
and beans with naled’s
breakdown
product dichlorvos.36
Water Contamination
Insecticides
in naled’s chemical family,
the
organophosphates, are com-
Figure
6
Malnutrition Increases Naled’s
Toxicity
Source:
Kaloyanova,
F. and M. Tasheva. 1983. Effect of protein malnutrition
on
the toxicity of pesticides. In Pesticide chemistry: Human welfare and
the environment. Vol. 3. Mode of
action, metabolism, and toxicology,
ed.
Miyamoto, J and P.C. Kearney. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Pp.
527-529.
250
200
150
100
50
0
Naled
inhibits the activity of an immune system enzyme. It is also more toxic to
malnourished animals than animals fed a normal diet.
Median
lethal dose(milligrams per kilogram of body weight in rats)
mon
contaminants of urban streams
and
rivers.37 However, neither
naled
or
its breakdown product dichlorvos
were
included in the national water
quality
monitoring program currently
being
conducted by the U.S. Geological
Survey.38
This means that no systematic
information
is available about
naled
contamination of U.S. streams,
rivers,
or wells. EPA also does not
have
monitoring data for naled or its
breakdown
products in ground or surface
water.39
Air Contamination
Naled
can persist in air up to several
days
after treatment. University of
California,
Davis toxicologists measured
both
naled and its breakdown product
dichlorvos
in the air around a naledtreated
orange
grove for three days
after
application.40
Drift
Aerial
applications of naled drift
(move
from the target site during application)
for
significant distances. Entomologists
from
the University of
Florida
measured naled contamination
750
meters (2400 feet) downwind from
sprayed
areas. They suggest that nospray
buffer
zones greater than 750
meters
in width “be placed around ecologically
sensitive
areas.”41
Effects on Beneficial Insects
Because
it is a broad spectrum insecticide,
it
is not surprising that naled
impacts
beneficial insects, those that
provide
important economic benefits
to
farmers. In a study submitted as
part
of naled’s registration process,
naled
was “highly toxic”42 to honey
bees.
Follow-up studies found that this
toxicity
decreased rapidly during the
first
day after treatment.42 Naled’s
toxicity
to other species of bees
(alfalfa
leafcutting bees and alkali
bees)
is more persistent than for honey
bees.43
It can “mimic long residual
[persistent]
materials,” reducing
leafcutting
bee numbers 48 hours after
treatment.44
Parasitoid
wasps (wasps that lay
their
eggs in juvenile stages of other
insects,
which then are killed as the
wasps
hatch and develop) can also be
poisoned
by low-level exposure to
Figure
5
Naled (and Dichlorvos)
Inhibit the Immune System
Source:
Lee,
M.J. and H.C. Waters. 1977. Inhibition of monocyte esterase
activity
by organophosphate insecticides. Blood 50:947-951.
4
3
2
1
0
Concentration
inhibiting a white blood cell enzyme(monocyte esterase) by 50 %(parts per
billion in blood sample)
Naled
Dichlorvos
Low
protein diet Normal diet
Note:
Smaller lethal dose
indicates
higher toxicity
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Sprayed
sites
naled.
According to U.S. Department
of
Agriculture researchers, a wasp that
parasitizes
fruit flies was killed by a
naled
and protein bait mixture designed
to
kill fruit flies.45
Naled
is also highly toxic to a
predatory
mite.46
A
University of Florida zoologist
studied
areas in Florida where regular
mosquito
spraying occurred with
Dibrom
and another insecticide. He
found
a “major loss” in insect diversity
in
sprayed sites. Wasps showed
“some
of the most dramatic drops in
species
diversity.”47 Scale insects,
whose
populations are normally controlled
by
parasitic wasps, increased.47
Effects on Birds
According
to EPA, naled is moderately
to
highly toxic to birds. The most sensitive
species
tested by naled’s manufacturer
during
the registration process
was
the Canada goose, killed by 37
mg/kg
of naled.48
According
to tests conducted by
naled’s
manufacturer, this insecticide
also
affects bird reproduction. Mallard
ducks
eating food treated with naled
laid
fewer eggs, produced fewer viable
eggs,
and hatched fewer ducklings
than
unexposed mallards.48
Effects on Fish
According
to EPA, naled is very
highly
toxic to lake trout; highly toxic
to
rainbow trout, cutthroat trout, and
catfish;
and moderately toxic to sunfish,
minnow,
and bass. The most
sensitive
species in tests submitted
to
EPA by naled’s manufacturer was
lake
trout, with an LC50 (median lethal
concentration;
the dose required
to
kill 50 percent of test animals) of
87
parts per billion (ppb).49
Naled
also causes effects on fish
other
than death. In a test conducted
by
naled’s manufacturer, a concentration
of
15 ppb impaired the growth of
fathead
minnows.49
Effects on Other Aquatic
Animals
Ecologically
important insects are
killed
by naled. According to a naled
manufacturer,
a concentration of 8 ppb
kills
stoneflies.50 Research
conducted
by
the Arctic Health Research Center
(Alaska)
showed that water striders
were
killed 300 feet from a naled
fogger.51
Stoneflies are important nutrient
cyclers
in streams and water striders
are
scavengers and predators.52,53
Aquatic
arthropods are also impacted
by
naled. Waterfleas are killed
by
less than 0.5 ppb of naled in tests
conducted
by naled’s manufacturer,
and
less than 0.2 ppb disrupts
waterflea
growth. Shrimp are killed
by
less than 10 ppb.54
According
to EPA, naled is “very
highly
toxic” to oysters.55
Sea
urchins are also sensitive to
naled
exposure. University of Miami
researchers
showed that concentrations
of
less than 4 ppb disrupt normal
development
of embryos.56
Effects on Endangered
Species
Evaluations
by both EPA and the
U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service have
concluded
that use of naled puts endangered
mammals,
fish, mussels, and
other
species at risk.57
In
addition, there is field evidence
of
naled’s hazards for endangered
species.
Dibrom spraying (along with
spraying
of another insecticide) was
“directly
correlated with the precipitous
decline
in the Schaus Swallowtail
populations
on Key Largo [FL],”47 according
to
a University of Florida zoologist.
This
swallowtail is listed as an
endangered
species under both Florida
and
federal law.47
A
University of Florida entomologist
studying
a different rare butterfly,
the
Florida lacewing, found higher
populations
in unsprayed areas than
in
sprayed areas. (See Figure 7.) He
concluded
that “it is likely that chemical
applications
play an important role
in
affecting the population size and
behavior
of these species.”58
Effects on Plants
Insecticides
are typically not expected
to
damage plants. However,
University
of California researchers
showed
that naled treatment caused
brown
lesions in celery and bronzing
Figure
7
Naled Mosquito Spraying Reduces
Populations of Rare Butterflies
Source:
Salvato, M. 2001. Influence of mosquito control chemicals on butterflies
(Nymphalidae,
Lycaenidae,
Hesperiidae) of the lower Florida Keys. J. Lepidop. Soc. 55:8-14.
Number
of Florida lacewing butterflies per hectare(average of 63 sampling dates in
1997 and 1998)
4
3
2
1
0
Naled
spraying reduced populations of a rare butterfly, the Florida lacewing, in the
Florida
Keys.
Unsprayed
sites
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of
strawberries.59,60 The strawberry
damage
was accompanied by reduced
photosynthesis
(using sunlight to produce
sugars)
and closing of leaf openings
(stomata).60
Brazilian researchers
found
that naled also “drastically reduced”
tomato
pollen germination.61
In
aquatic plants, naled reduces
photosynthesis.
In laboratory tests, a
naled
concentration of 1 ppm reduced
photosynthesis
by estuary algae by
over
50 percent.62
Efficacy of Mosquito
Treatments
The
U.S. Centers for Disease Control
and
Prevention has written that
“adulticiding,
application of chemicals
to
kill adult mosquitoes by ground or
aerial
applications, is usually the least
efficient
mosquito control technique.”63
Naled
is no exception. For example,
researchers
from the New York Department
of
Health showed that 11
years
of naled spraying was “successful
in
achieving short-term reductions
in
mosquito abundance,”64 but populations
of
the disease-carrying mosquito
of
concern “increased 15-fold”64 over
the
11 years of spraying.
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